Childhood Obesity: Causes and Treatments

Childhood Obesity: Causes and Treatments Back few decades, the question of childhood obesity was not an issue to be argued. Our grandparents and parents never inquired the weight of their children at school age, their children, school fellows or any other child they came into contact with. Their children ate healthy foods from the table and played the whole day outside. The matter of childhood weight has altered enough since that time. With the coming of fast foods, play station and Xbox games, our kids live inactive lives and as a result, have become very obese. The epidemic of childhood obesity is quickly growing throughout U.S. In just two decades, the frequency of overweight United States children ages 6 to 11 has doubled up. Obesity has been related to several disorders and conditions in adolescences, such as diabetes, heart disease and cancer. On the whole, about 25 million United State children and adults are obese or nearly obese. This discovering is very distressing to many Americans and has instigated many debates on how to control the rising sizes of our youngsters. The objective of this paper is to investigate the obesity issue in the children in the age they are attending their schools levels. Childhood obesity, you hear about it far and wide. There are advertisements about it on electronic media. Its a very famous issue on mainstream talk shows; even Oprah has an episode about it at least once each term. We all know at least one obese child, and unhappily that rate is rising all the time. Obesity is described as an extreme accumulation of fat that raises body weight by twenty percent or more over ones ideal body weight. Childhood obesity can be instigating by physiological, emotional and familial factors. There is, nevertheless a small ratio of genetic features that can also cause childhood obesity such as problems of the thyroid. While, the main cause of obesity is simply the fact that children eat too much and dont exercise enough. (Okie, 2006) Many factors, generally working together, raise a childs risk of being obese. Eating a large amount of high calorie foods, like baked goods, and vending machine snacks and fast foods surely contributes to weight increase. When purchasing foodstuff, the parents should concentrate on purchasing more vegetables and fresh fruits and stay away from the convenience foods that are high in sugar and fat. Healthy food and drink should always be available and food should never be used as an incentive or a penalty. Children should not be given sweets as a incentive for eating a meal, because this teaches them to place a higher value on desserts and may make desserts more attractive to them rather than the healthy foods. Having an inactive way of living is one more factor that causes to weight gain. Figures show that kids spend at least six and a half hours a day with some type of media, such as playing video games, chatting on the internet and watching television. Children require having at least 1 hour of physical exercise each day and cutting down the media to about two hours a day. The simple way to get children to exercise is to just get them to play games that will keep them physically active like hide and seek. Kids need to be kept active not only to sustain their weight, but also to support healthy bone and muscle growth. Childhood obesity influences the child psychologically as well. Overweight children tend to have lower self respect and therefore pick on other overweight children to compensate for it. They also have the trend to have more nervousness and have poor social expertise as well. In some cases, their overweight can affect their functioning at school and their nervousness may cause some to want to perform out in class, while others become more socially aloof. Children need to be supported to lose weight and maintain a healthy way of living. They should be reminded that their lives do mean something and that theres still punishment of time to make a change in their lives for the better. The earlier they are capable to understand this, the more leaning they are to want to make a change. Parents and caretakers need to be extra helpful particularly at the point where the child is beginning to make small changes at a time. Causes The increase in childhood obesity has many reasons. The main reason of obesity is surely children in school age is eating too much and/or not performing usual physical activities at homes or schools or being inactive. The additional calories that are not capable to burn up through physical activities or exercise will translate into fat, and when this fat becomes excessive and more, one will become overweight. This significance results in weight gain and will vary from kids to kids that was due to few factors such as health issues, physical inactivity, genes as well as psychological problems also reason to weight gain and may be what the causes of obesity are. Even though the main reason of obesity is underlying disorders, however, it is also intimately related to people way of living as well. In the pass, kids like to play sports more frequently, enjoy external activities as forms of entertainment and walk to school. But in these days, children are totally reverse from the past. The sports our children like to do these days are playing computer games, surfing internet, chatting, watching television and any game they select while exercising only their mind, head and hands only. When you combine the poor selections in food and the lack of exercising, there is a high chance that childhood obesity will finish up lead to disorder. Genetics and DNA have been found to be a contributing part in the causes of childhood obesity. Unluckily, some kids are unsurprisingly predisposed to obesity. The environment too performs a role in the reason of obesity. The family home is a significant place to learn about proper nutrition and enough exercise. Habits, Attitude and beliefs about food choices and how to spend family leisure time are crucial factors to forming a healthy relation with food. Kids spend a lot of time in school, their food selections at school become significant and it was influenced by the school eating environment. Contemporary way of living has enhanced our quality of life but also contribute very much too physical inactivity. Cars are utilized for short trips, and the number of walking trips the average American children takes each year have reduced. Nowadays only about 10 percent of public school students walk to school evaluated to the large no of student a generation ago. Treatment Treatment and deterrence of childhood obesity is a constant effort on a lot of unlike parts. According to the Institute of Medicine of the National Academics (IMNA), the meaning of deterrence is â€Å"With regard to obesity, primary prevention represents evading the happening of obesity in a population; secondary deterrence represents early finding of obesity through screening with the reason of restraining its occurrence; and tertiary deterrence engages preventing the sequel of obesity in childhood and adulthood.† Such as parents who perform a role in treating and stopping childhood obesity. Schools can perform a role in the treatment and prevention of childhood obesity. Government management can also perform a role in treatment and deterrence of childhood obesity. Parents can perform a significant role, because the children depend on the parents for daily feeding and constant activities. Some parents who have busy timetable and cannot afford to spend the time on cooking nourishing foods for either breakfast, lunch, or dinner generally just give the children fast food to eat. And when the children are at home the parents generally dont spend time doing out-of-doors activities with their children. In order to control obesity in children at school level Healthy People 2010 presents an inclusive, national health support and disease prevention program. It is designed to serve as a roadmap for increasing the health of all people in the U.S. during the 1st decade of the 21st century. Like the previous Healthy People 2000 initiative—which was driven by an ambitious, yet attainable, 10-year policy for improving the Nations health by the end of the 20th century— Healthy People 2010 is committed to a single, overarching purpose: promoting health and stopping sickness aroused by obesity. Healthy People 2010 focus to increase the health and well-being of all children by stopping childhood obesity and addressing the unique physical, psychological, behavioral, and socioeconomic features that affect childrens health. Take care not to isolate or ostracize obese children, and highlight the significance of healthy habits over cosmetic appearance. Healthy people 2010 present that obesity and other chronic conditions continue to present a serious obstacle to public health. Violence and abusive behavior continue to ravage homes and communities across the country. Mental disorders continue to go undiagnosed and untreated. Obesity in adults has increased 50 percent over the past two decades. It also provides that nearly 40 percent of adults engage in no leisure time physical activity. Healthy people 2010 emphasize schools to perform a main role in the treatment and deterrence of obesity in children. Because children are expending a lot more time in school than at home doing after school courses or children are in daycare. Children spend a lot of money in cold drink and snack machines in schools. According to the Institute of Medicine of the National Academics states that, â€Å"All food and cold drink sold or served to students in school should be healthy and meet an accepted dietary content standard. Nevertheless, many of the competitive foodstuffs now sold in school canteens, selling machines, school fundraisers and school stores are normally high in calories and low in nutritional value. At present, only minimal federal standards exist for the sale of competitive foodstuff in schools. Schools want to propose more physical education in the childrens set of courses according to Healthy People 2010. If schools offer more physical activity in the set of courses and give a better option in lunch menus, then children would be more energetic in the activities that they do. Healthy People 2010 gives that there are some key particulars that schools can follow to assist children give healthy eating behaviors and regular physical activity: Develop and implement dietary standards for all competitive foodstuffs and drinks sold or served in schools; Make sure that all school foods meet the Nutritional Guidelines for Americans; make sure that all children and youth contribute in a minimum of half hour of moderate to energetic physical activity during the school time, containing extended opportunities for physical activity through classes; Improve school health curricula and the use of school health services for obesity deterrence efforts; make sure that schools are as advertisin g-free as possible; Conduct yearly evaluation of students height, weight and body mass index and make that information available to parents; Assess school strategies and practices connected to nutrition, exercise, obesity deterrence. Conclusion In conclusion, Healthy people give that our children for the future are being failed. Healthy living needs to be taken critically. Increasingly households have both parents working full-time jobs to provide shelter, food, and clothing for their families. Providing the basic requirements is not sufficient for a healthy family. Parents need to become more concerned in their childs life. The health concerns of the youth today are instant and warrant urgent preventative actions. Preventing childhood obesity is a combined liability requiring individual, community, corporate, family and governmental commitments. The key will be to implement changes from many ways and at numerous levels, and through teamwork with and between many sectors. A more optimistic role by our nations parents should be taken to lead our children to a healthier future. References Susan Okie. (2006). Fed Up: Winning the War Against Childhood Obesity. New York: Joseph Henry Press. Sandra G. Hassink. (2006). A Parents Guide to Childhood Obesity: A Roadmap to Health. New York: American Academy Of Pediatrics. Ellyn Satter. (2005). Your Childs Weight: Helping without Harming. Florida: Kelcy Press. Donald Schumacher, J. Allen Queen. (2006). Overcoming Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence. London: Corwin Press. Frances M. Berg. (2003). Underage and Overweight: Americas Childhood Obesity Epidemic. Chicago: Hatherleigh Press. Denise Alexander, et.al. (2008). Challenges and Findings in Measuring the Behavioral Determinants of Obesity in Children in Europe. New York: Springer. Billy C. Johnson. (2008). New Prescription for Childhood Obesity: Fight Childhood Obesity with Antioxidants Phytonutrients. New York: iUniverse, Inc. Jeffrey P. Koplan. (2005). Preventing Childhood Obesity: Health In The Balance. New York: National Academy Press. H. Dele Davies, Hiram E. Fitzgerald. (2007). Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence. New York: Praeger Publishers.

Music in Education Essay

Music can affect the body in many health-promoting ways, which is the basis for a growing field known as music therapy. However, you can use music in your daily life and achieve many stress relief benefits on your own. One of the great benefits of music as a stress reliever is that it can be used while you conduct your regular activities so that it really doesn’t take time away from your busy schedule. Music provides a wonderful backdrop for your life so that you can find increased enjoyment from what you’re doing and also reduce stress from your day. Music still tells a story, we know just have many genres to satisfy the cultural and social tastes of our modern society. Hip Hop is a genre of music that has significantly grown the last couple of decades. Its increased popularity has brought it to the forefront of globalization. Technological advances have made it easy for Hip Hop to spread out globally. This occurrence of globalization is a key example that as our cultural borders are broken down by technology, our own cultural and social practices become fluid. Although there are many positive and negative comments about the globalization of Hip Hop, it is a reflection of the growing phenomenon occurring all over the world. Hip hop originated in the South Bronx of New York City in the 1970s. The term rap is often used synonymously with hip hop, but hip hop can also be described as an entire subculture (â€Å"Hip Hop†, 2004). The term Hip Hop is said to have come from a joke between Keith Cowboy, rapper with Grandmaster Flash and the Furious Five, and their friends (â€Å"Hip Hop†, 2004). Although Hip Hop was created on American soil, it’s influences are global. It can be said that Hip Hop might be a result of ethnic globalization. Hip Hop has roots in African, Caribbean, and Latino culture (â€Å"Hip Hop Globalization and Youth Culture†, 2005). Spoken word, which is still popular today is also an influence in Hip Hop music and culture. Spoken word is a style of poetry spoken in a rhythmic fashion. Hip Hop ranges from rap music, to B-boy dance. It was a platform to empower ethnic youth without violence. Hip Hop in the beginning was essentially still an underground subculture. It was popular with many ethnic communities but it was not popular in the mainstream music industry. This all changed with the band Blondie and their song â€Å"Rapture†. â€Å"Rapture† is one of the first rap song’s to reach the top of the charts in mainstream pop music. Although Blondie is a punk/rock band, they were the proper catalyst to give Hip Hop the mainstream attention it deserved. Hip Hop has changed since it’s birth in the 1970’s. Hip Hop is now apart of the mainstream music scene. It is not uncommon to see artist from different genres collaborating with Hip Hop artists. It is also not uncommon to see Hip Hop music and culture in movies, television shows, and commercials. In the past you would only see people from ethnic communities wearing Hip Hop clothing, now all races including Asian, Caucasian, etc have accepted the Hip Hop style. The subject matter has also changed. In the past Hip Hop lyrics focused on political and societal frustrations, now Hip Hop lyrics steer more toward provocative content. Hip Hop subject matter consists mostly of the aspirations of wealth, sex, drug use, and criminal activity. During the beginning years the age of the Hip Hop listener was wide spread. It ranged from teens to even adults in their 50’s. Although Hip Hop still has an adult audience, it is now more geared toward younger audiences. Younger listeners are more likely to purchase Hip Hop music and paraphernalia, than the older audience. Music has always been a great healer. In the Bible, we learn about how David played the harp to help ease his severe depression of King Saul. Music is a significant mood-changer and reliever of stress, working on many levels at once. Many experts suggest that it is the rhythm of the music or the beat that has the calming effect on us although we may not be very conscious about it. They point out that when we were a baby in our mother’s womb, we probably were influenced by the heartbeat of our mother. We respond to the soothing music at later stages in life, perhaps associating it with the safe, relaxing, protective environment provided by our mother. They say that math is the universal language, and while that may be true, music has traits to it that even the casual listener should but may not always recognize as universal, literally and figuratively. Moreover, music is beneficial to the musician’s and the listener’s health and well-being. Music is everywhere, and it can be made and enjoyed by anyone, any animal, and any living thing, in its own way. The universe itself has a sense of rhythm, melody and music. Everyday speech has a lilt that can be called some kind of music. In nature, without the white noise of civilization in the background, the sounds of the trees, the water, and the air can all be called music. And animals, birds in particular, have their own sense of melody in the sounds that they make and use to communicate with each other. Music comes in so many various forms that it reflects, in a way, the diversity of the languages spoken and written on the planet. Whether it be classical music, pop, gospel music, country music or whatever pleases the ear, there will always be a kind of music for everyone, and it can come in any language. They say that learning and listening to music makes one smarter. As studies show, music makes the musician use his mind in a way that develops and maintains good mental health. Music is an art and a science; anyone who learns any bit of musical theory will know that music has a particular structure, while still allowing for creative freedom. Reading music and playing an instrument causes the musician to use both sides of his brain at once – the mathematical side, and the artistic side. Learning to understand a staff of music and the symbols written on it is akin to learning a scientific or mathematical formula. Applying the formula to the instrument at hand takes plenty of practise to do well, but once it is learned, it does not easily fade away. Developing and maintaining musicality, on the other hand, is partly talent and partly practise, much like other art forms like drawing, dancing and singing. Music is a great well for emotions. The same art form that puts babies to sleep can release anger and sadness, encourage joy, and sooth stress. To the Romantics, music was the purest of art forms because it connects directly with emotions (The New Penguin Book of Romantic Poetry, 47), during a time period that produced composers that are still well known today. David wrote many psalms while he watched sheep. And even though he was not always a favourite of King Saul, David’s playing would comfort the king (1 Samuel 16). Music brings people together. It is understood that before modern technology, live music was a natural form of entertainment, and people were considered accomplished when they learned to play instruments. Music can create a good atmosphere and encourage a good mood that relaxes people whether they are actively listening to it or not. That is part of the reason why it is ideal for parties, weddings, funerals, and other such gatherings. Music is universal. It is calming, gentling, entertaining, inspiring and healthy. It helps maintain good mental health and a balanced emotional state. It is a gift from God that anyone can learn, appreciate and enjoy. Hip Hop proves to be the voice of the people that may not be able to speak for themselves in conventional ways. Globalization has allowed many people who would not have the means to speak up, to be able to take center stage. Many believe that globalization will be the end of individuality and creativity.

The Effects of Substrate Concentration, Reaction Time and Enzyme Concentration on Enzyme Reactions

The Effects of Substrate Concentration, Reaction Time and Enzyme Concentration on Enzyme Reactions Corey von Ellm-St. Croix Rachael Kwan ID#: 20427841 Matthew Hrycyshyn & Saeideh Mayanloo Biol 130L, Section 017 Wednesday, 9:30am-12:20pm, 151 November 09, 2011 A living system controls its activity through enzymes. Enzymes are made from hundreds or even thousands of amino acids connected in a very unique and specific order. Almost all enzymes are proteins, except for ribozymes. The chain of amino acids then folds into a unique shape. That shape not only allows the enzyme to carry out specific chemical reactions but to act as a very efficient catalyst. The enzyme speeds that reaction up tremendously. Each enzyme reacts with one specific reactant called a substrate that will form its products. The purpose of the experiments is to determine the effects of substrate concentration, reaction time and enzyme concentration on the direction of an enzyme reaction. Amylase is a digestive enzyme found in both the saliva and the small intestine. Salivary amylase is a hydrolytic reaction that breaks down starch molecules by systematically breaking off the maltose molecules from the ends of starch chains. The maltose is further broken down by another enzyme. Phosphorylase is an enzyme that systematically removes glucose molecules by consumes phosphoric acid to break the beta-1-4-glucosidic bonds in starch. The interaction of phosphate with the glucosidic bond results in the formation of glucose-1-phosphate and the loss of a chain unit in starch. In the reverse reaction the glucose part of glucose-1-phosphate is added as a new chain unit and phosphate is set free. This reversible enzymatic polymerization occurs with little change in free energy and therefor the reaction may choose to go either way. Iodine Test is a test for the presence of starch in which the sample turns blue-black in color when a few drops of potassium iodide solution are placed on the sample. A negative iodine test is when the reaction remains yellow in colour. It is the reaction between iodine and the coiled polymer of glucose known as amylase in starch that causes the colour change. The reaction occurs when straight amylase chains form helices in which the iodine can pass inside. Glycogen also receives a colour change because it is a glucose polymer as well but its structure differentiates from starch which therefore forms a brown colour change. The iodine test does not work for mono or disaccharides because they are too small to capture the iodine. The Benedict’s test is used to detect the presence of reducing sugars. Reducing sugars are sugars with a free aldehyde or ketone group. The free reactive carbonyl group allows all monosaccharides to be reducing sugars. The same goes for disaccharides as some also contain the free reactive carbonyl group. The colour of precipitate formed when the Benedict’s test acquires a positive result depends on the concentration of reducing sugars present. A green colour change indicates that few reducing sugars are present. Orange indicates a higher concentration, red an even higher concentration and brown is the highest concentration colour change. A negative test for reducing sugar occurs when the Benedict’s solution remains its blue colour. Materials and Method Materials and Method found in 1119 BIOL 130, Department of Biology 2011 Cell Biology Laboratory Manual. University of Waterloo, Waterloo. Fall 2011. p. 37-42. The procedure of the lab did not differ from that in the lab manual. Results Salivary Amylase Iodine test: Table 1 Test Tube Number| Results Through Experimentation| Control | 1 (10% salivary amylase solution) | Yellow | Negative | 2 (5% salivary amylase solution)| Yellow| Negative | 3 (2% salivary amylase solution)| Yelllow| Negative | 4 (1% salivary amylase soluti on)| Yellow| Negative| 5 (1% starch suspension)| Blue-Black| Positive| Table1: The table above represent the first iodine test done. Shows components of each test tube as well as the results and positive or negative control. Dilutions were done using tap water (may contain other molecules). Corresponds to steps 5 through 10. Benedict’s test: Table 2 Test Tube Number| Results Through Experimentation| Control| 1 (10% salivary amylase solution) | Brown-orange precipitate| Positive| 2 (5% salivary amylase solution)| Green precipitate | Positive| 3 (2% salivary amylase solution)| Blue | Negative| 4 (1% salivary amylase solution)| Blue| Negative| 5 (1% starch suspension)| Blue| Negative| Table 2: The table above represent the first Benedict’s test done. Shows components of each test tube as well as the results and positive or negative control. Each of the above test tubes contains 4ml Benedict’s solution and were boiled for 5 minutes when determining results and are related to steps 5 through 10. Iodine test: Table 3 Test Tubes| Number of Drops Till Negative| Time Interval| Time| 9+14 (1% salivary amylase solution)| 13 | 60 seconds| 13*60= 780 seconds| 8+13 (2% salivary amylase solution)| 12| 30 seconds| 12*30= 360 seconds| 7+12 (5% salivary amylase solution)| 10| 15 seconds| 10*15= 150 seconds| 6+11 (10% salivary amylase solution)| 18| 5 seconds| 18*5= 90 seconds | 10+15 (water)| (Always positive)| N/A| N/A| Table 3: The table above represents the time it took to reach endpoint. Shows components of each test tube, number of drops, time interval between drops and time to reach endpoint. Each of the above test tubes contains 2ml – 1% starch suspension and 2ml McIlvaine’s buffer. The above test tubes were placed in a warm bath at 37 degrees Celsius and pertain to steps 11-18. Benedict’s test: Table 4 Test tube| Results through experimentation| Control| 20 (water)| blue| negative| 9 (1% salivary amylase solution)| 1/3 brown -2/3 blue| Positive| 18 (2% salivary amylase solution)| 1/3 brown -2/3 blue| Positive| 17 (5% salivary amylase solution)| 1/3 brown -2/3 blue| Positive| 16(10% salivary amylase solution)| 1/3 brown -2/3 blue| Positive| Table 4: The table above represents the search for reducing sugars after endpoint. Each of the above test tubes contains 4ml Benedict’s solution and were boiled for 5 minutes when determining results and are related to steps 18-2 0. Phosphorylase Composition of test tubes: Table 5 TEST TUBE NUMBER | CONTAINS| One| 1. 5ml of 0. 01M glucose + 1 drop of 0. % starch suspension| Two| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension| Three| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate| Four| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension| Five| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate + 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension| Six| 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate + 1. 5ml of 0. 2% starch suspension| Seven| 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate+ 1. 5ml of 0. 2% starch suspension| Eight| 4ml Boiled phosphorylase | Table 5: The above table represent the solutions present in the test tubes 1-8 from steps 2-10 Iodine test: Table 6 Test tube| Results through experimentation| Control| 1| Yellow | Negative | 2| Yellow| Negative| 3| Yellow| Negative| 4| Yellow| Negative| 5| Yellow| Negative| 6| Blue-black| Positive| 7| Blue-black| Positive | Table 6: Search for starch within test tubes 1-7. Shows components of each test tube as well as the results and positive or negative control. Composition of test tubes : Table 7 TEST TUBE NUMBER | CONTAINS| One| 1. 5ml of 0. 01M glucose + 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension + 2ml phosphorylase| Two| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension+ 2ml phosphorylase| Three| 1. of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate+ 2ml phosphorylase| Four| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension + 2ml boiled phosphorylase| Five| 1. 5 of 0. 01M glucose-1-phosphate + 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate+ 1 drop of 0. 2% starch suspension+ 2ml phosphorylase| Six| 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate + 1. 5ml of 0. 2% starch suspension+ 2ml phosphorylase| Sev en| 0. 5ml of 0. 2M potassium phosphate+ 1. 5ml of 0. 2% starch suspension + 2ml boiled phosphorylase| Table 7: The above table represent the solutions present in the test tubes 1-7 from steps 11-12 Iodine Test: Table 8 Time Interval| test tube 1| Test tube 2| Test tube 3| Test tube 4| Test tube 5| Test tube 6| Test tube 7| 10:28-10:32| yellow| Very faint blue-black| yellow| yellow| yellow| Faint blue-black| Blue black| 10:32-10:36| yellow| Blue black| yellow| yellow| yellow| Very faint blue-black| Blue black| 10:36-10:39| yellow| Blue black| yellow| yellow| yellow| Faint blue black| Blue black| 10:39-10:42| yellow| Blue black| yellow| yellow| yellow| Faint blue black| Blue black| 10:42-10:46| yellow| Blue black| yellow| yellow| yellow| Blue black| Blue black| 10:46-10:49| yellow| Blue black| Very faint blue black| yellow| yellow| Blue black| Blue black| 10:49-10:52| Yellow| Blue black| Faint blue black| Yellow| yellow| Blue black| Blue black| 10:52-10:55| Yellow| Blue black| Blue black| Yellow| Yellow| Blue black| Blue black| 10:55-10:58| Yellow| Blue black| Blue black| Yellow| Yellow| Blue black| Blue black| 10:58-10:42| yellow| Blue black| Blue black| yellow| Yellow| Blue black| Blue black| Table 8: Test for the presence and synthesis of starch. Contains the time interval from when the previous test had ended to termination of current test and the reaction result of test tubes 1-7. Figure1: above; represent the time it took each salivary amylase concentration to reach endpoint (when test for starch became negative. Discussion: Salivary Amylase The Iodine test’s control is the presence of starch. If starch is presence then the control is positive resulting in a blue-black colour change. The first iodine test or if you refer to table 1, gave a positive result for only test tube 5 which contained 1% starch suspension. Clearly starch is present based on just the component of the solution. A negative control in an iodine test will result in maintenance of the yellow colour of iodine. According to table one the test tubes containing 10% salivary amylase solution, 5% salivary amylase solution, 2% salivary amylase solution and 1% salivary amylase solution resulted in a negative control result. This is due to the fact that all that is present is the enzyme salivary amylase and water and therefore no starch. The Benedict’s test control is the presence of reducing sugars (sugars with a free aldehyde or ketone group). If a reducing sugar is present then a positive control reaction will occur. A positive control reaction is when a colour of the blue Benedict’s solution turns green, orange, red or brown after boiling. Each colour represents the concentration of reducing sugars present, green being the lowest and brown the highest. Referring back to table 2, test tubes 1 and 2 resulted in a positive control reaction. Even though test tubes 1 and 2 contained only salivary amylase the tap water used to dilute the amylase solution may contain some starch which would in turn become maltose a reducing sugar. The 10% salivary amylase (test tube 1) resulted in an orange colour change due to the fact that a higher enzyme concentration would more likely produce enough reducing sugars to result in an orange colour change. The 5 % salivary amylase (test tube 2) resulted in a green colour change which describes a low concentration of reducing sugars. This makes sense as a lower enzyme concentration would result in less reducing sugar being made through the enzymatic reaction between starch and amylase. A negative control reaction for the Benedict’s test occurs when the Benedict’s blue solution remains the same. Referring back to table 2 test tubes 3, 4 and 5 resulted in a negative control reaction. This may be due to the fact that the enzyme concentration were too low to produce enough reducing sugars from the starch found in the tap water to warrant a colour change. The starch (substrate) would for a substrate-enzyme complex with salivary amylase to produce maltose and salivary amylase. In conclusion enzyme concentration does play a factor in the speed of an enzymatic reaction. The results of Table 3, the second iodine test performed, is used to determine when the starch added with the different concentrations of salivary amylase has reached its endpoint and has been fully hydrolysed into maltose. The endpoint has been reached once the iodine test gives a negative control result which occurs once no starch or very few is present. According to the experimental data presented in table 3 enzyme concentrations again played a role in the speed of the reaction. 10% salivary amylase took 90 seconds where as 1% salivary amylase took 780 seconds. The starch (substrate) would for a substrate-enzyme complex with salivary amylase to produce maltose and salivary amylase. Test tube 10 + 15 will result in a positive control reaction all the time because it is comprised of water and starch. With no salivary amylase enzymes starch will always be present which is the positive control in an iodine test. A trend was found that as the salivary concentrations were halved the time to reach endpoint was doubled, leading me to believe an inverse proportionality to be present between enzyme concentration and time to reach end point. Table 4 was another Benedict’s test performed after the each combination of test tube had reached its endpoint. The positive result in a Benedict’s test occurs once a green, orange, red or brown colour change occurs because of the presence of reducing sugars. Test tubes 16-19, containing the different concentrations of salivary amylase, resulted in a positive control reaction because the starch (substrate) would for a substrate-enzyme complex with salivary amylase to produce maltose and salivary amylase and due to the fact that maltose is a reducing sugar which happens to be the control for a Benedict’s test, a positive control reaction will occur. The negative control reaction for a Benedict’s test is when the Benedict’s solution remains blue signifying the absence of reducing sugars. According to table 4, test tube 20 only contained water and the starch suspension with no amylase present a substrate-enzyme complex will not form which will not result in a reducing sugar. Phosphorylase Table 6 is another iodine test. The positive control reaction for an iodine test is when the solution turns blue-black. The experimental data given in table 6 shows that test tubes 6 and 7 gave a positive reaction for starch because of the 1. 5 ml of 0. 2% starch found in solution. The negative control reaction is when the solution remains the colour of iodine, yellow. Test tube 1 through 5 gave negative result because they either do not contain any starch in solution or the amount of starch present is too little (starch primer) and must be in presence of phosphorylase to synthesis a larger starch chain that can be reacted with the iodine test to provide a positive result. Table 8 is once again another iodine test. With the addition of phosphorylase some of the test tubes that gave a negative result in the previous iodine test (table 6) may now give a positive result because of the ability of the reaction between phosphoric acid and glucose to from glucose-1-phosphate and one less glucose unit in starch chain to go in either direction. Therefore a test tube with a starch primer may use the phosphorylase to synthesis into a starch chain. The same is for the solution that gave a positive reaction may turn negative in the presence of phosphorylase to form a starch primer and glucose-1-phosphate. Referring to table 8 the test tubes that resulted in a positive control reaction were 2,3,6 and 7. Because test tubes 6 and 7 were already gave positive results in previous iodine test (table 6) and did the same in this iodine test can only mean that a synthesis of a larger starch chain had occurred or the starch chain had not removed enough glucose bonds to result in a negative iodine control result. In test tube 7 the phosphorylase was boiled which would denature the enzyme so that it could not perform its task and therefore phosphorolysis could not take place and therefore test tube 7 would have to remain a positive control result. Test tubes 2 and 3 were primarily negative in previous iodine test but resulted in a positive control result when the enzyme phosphorylase was added. Table shows that over time both solutions grew more intense in colour signifying the synthesis of a longer starch chain. Test tube 2 had the starch primer and glucose-1-phosphate to start with and therefore took less time to give a positive control result. Test tube 3 did not contain the starch primer and I believe should not have given a positive control result. Test tube 3 did however contain the glucose-1-phosphate and perhaps may have started its own starch chain. This may have been done by having a glucose-1-phosphate and the glucose form a substrate-enzyme complex to give phosphoric acid and a larger glucose chain. The negative results were test tubes 1, 4 and 5 each contained the starch primer. Test tube 1 contained glucose but phosphorylase does not react with single glucose molecule and therefore test tube 1 will always give a negative control result. Test tube 4 used boiled phosphorylase and therefore the denatured enzyme would not be able to perform function which would result in an always negative control result. Test tube 5 had the right condition but perhaps never moved in one direction of the enzymatic reaction for too long resulting in a starch primer being present the whole time though it may have had potential to yield a positive control reaction. This shows that temperature do affect an enzyme. A buffer was also used in the reaction to allow for the proper pH levels to be obtained and therefore pH levels also affect enzymes. Overall throughout the experiment it was determined that substrate concentrations, reaction time and enzyme concentration effect the direction of an enzyme reaction. Reference Pelter, W. M. , McQuade, J. (2005). Brewing Science in the Chemistry Laboratory: A â€Å"Mashing† Investigation of Starch and Carbohydrates. Journal of Chemical Education, 82(12), 1811-1812. Ophardt, E. C. , (2003). Role of Enzymes in Biochemical Reactions. Virtual Chembook, Retrieved November 06, 2011, from Elmhurst College, http://www. elmhurst. edu/~chm/vchembook/570enzymes. html. Hall, I. (2008). Benedict's Test for Reducing Sugars. Retrieved November 06, 2011, from Ohio University, http://www. biosci. ohiou. edu/introbioslab/Bios170/170_2/benedict. htm

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